Inlay: Stone Set Into Silver
Inlay sets cut stone into silver so that the stone becomes part of the surface. In channel work, silver shows between the stones; in mosaic, no silver walls separate them. [12][17] Baxter (2000) calls the Zuni the most adept practitioners of both mosaic and channel inlay. [21]
KEY POINTS
- Inlay is older than contact. Baxter (2000) writes that the Hohokam and Salado of south-central Arizona excelled at it. [21]
- Schiffer (2008) calls small cut stones mounted together without wire frames “mosaics,” and Sikorski, as Bedinger reports, argued that “inlay” itself is a misnomer for what is properly mosaic. [11][12]
- The books date channel work differently: just before World War II (Bedinger 1973; Lund 1976), the late 1920s (Baxter 2000), and one ring that Frank (1990) dates to about 1915. [12][20][21][13]
- Early channel work was often a cooperative effort, with a Navajo smith doing the silverwork and a Zuni jeweler setting the stones. [17][20]
- The Turnbaughs trace chip inlay to Navajo smiths of the early 1960s. [14]
What inlay is
Schiffer (2008) names inlay for the way cut turquoise is laid into a predesigned silver wire frame, and keeps “mosaic” for small cut stones mounted together without the frames. [11] Not everyone accepts the first word. Sikorski, as Bedinger reports, called “inlay” a misnomer: the stones are cut, fitted and polished before the silver housing is made, so the proper term would be mosaic. [12]
Channel work is easier to tell. Bedinger: “Channel differs from mosaic in that silver shows between the stones.” [12] Jacka puts it from the other side. In mosaic there are no silver walls between the pieces. [17] Baxter adds a third division, by surface: flat inlay ground flush with the top of its groove, raised inlay left rounded and sometimes carved, and etched inlay. [21]
The Zuni center
Baxter calls the Zuni the most adept practitioners of both mosaic and channel inlay. [21] Lund, describing the Zuni style, points to turquoise massed together and silver played down. [20] Baxter traces it to small stones: facility with small stones led to channel and mosaic inlay, which replaced the early Zuni large-stone work. [21]
Bedinger puts inlay in use by 1927 at the latest. She also quotes Kirk (1945), who had the story from Meahke himself: “Stones for the first piece of historic inlay were cut by Teddy Meahke of Zuni about ten years ago [1935], on a special order for Dr. F. W. Hodge, in a design copied from an ancient piece.” [12] The Knife-Wing, one of the earliest designs used decoratively in silver, shows the path. It began as a flat silver casting with turquoise in separate bezels, and as the lapidaries grew more skilled, the bezels were dropped and modern mosaic resulted. [12]
When Adair surveyed Zuni in 1940, thirty-five percent of the smiths did inlay in shell, jet and turquoise. [12][19] A Knife-Wing two inches high was a full day's work and paid $3.50 to $4.00. [19] By 1973, Bedinger writes, Zuni mosaic had added cannel coal, red abalone, white spiny oyster, mother-of-pearl and coral to the older turquoise, white shell and jet. [12] In 1975 Preston Monongye described a new trend in Zuni inlaying toward more delicate, matched stones, the kind Lee and Mary Weebothee were setting. [16]
Channel work
The books do not agree on a start date. Bedinger writes that channel “originated at Zuni just before World War II,” and Lund dates it shortly before the war, popular only after it. [12][20] Baxter puts its origin in the late 1920s. [21] Frank dates one channel-set ring, with stones almost all green, to about 1915. [13]
Bedinger describes the construction. Silver strips are soldered upright on a silver base to make small cells, cut stones are cemented into them flush with the tops of the dividers, and the whole is ground and polished to one surface. [12] The dividers are wider than bezels and plain-edged, so the silver is part of the design. [12] Before the 1940s the cement was resin or pine pitch; epoxy came later. [21] Baxter adds a buyer's point: from the 1970s on, the cells can come out of a centrifugal casting instead, and a buyer should be told when they do. [21]
Early channel work was often shared work. Jacka and Lund both describe a Navajo smith doing the silverwork and a Zuni jeweler setting the stones. [17][20] Neumann, as Bedinger cites him, went further and called most channel work Navajo in design, describing a considerable group of Navajo frame-makers living near Manuelito, New Mexico. [12]
Channel inlay carries the longest documented practitioner roster in our library, including Charles Supplee [3], William and Joe Zunie [4], Lee Weebothee [5] and Benny Touchine. [6] Figural inlay, pictures in stone, is documented for Linda and Henry Barber [7], and stone-and-shell inlay for Alvin Beeshligaii. [8] Many of these makers have pages in our directory.
Chip inlay, and after
The Turnbaughs call chip inlay a modern adaptation that joins two older techniques, mosaic inlay and overlay. Where overlay leaves its background oxidized black, chip inlay fills that ground with epoxy and fragments of turquoise, coral, jet or other material. They date the first pieces to the early 1960s and to Navajo smiths, among them Dean Kirk, Tom Singer and others of the Singer family. [14] Tommy Singer told Jacka he opened a shop in Shiprock in 1968, worked first in overlay and then in chip inlay, gluing leftover chips of good turquoise together with epoxy, then grinding and polishing them. [17]
The Turnbaughs credit the Hopi artist Charles Loloma with first pioneering the “ear of corn” inlay technique in the 1960s, a contemporary form of traditional mosaic inlay. [14] In 1997 Bassman pictured a page of 14-karat gold bracelets and rings, all made by Julian Arviso. [15] Some of her credits split a piece between two makers: silver by Norton Becenti with stones set by Rick Tolino, and silver by Calvin Begay with stones set by Wilbert Muskett, Jr. [15]
For a shorter introduction to the styles, see Native American Inlay Jewelry. For the finer Zuni stonework, see Needlepoint & Petit Point. For how the pueblos and the Navajo differ, see Navajo, Zuni and Hopi.
Field Notes by Mateo James
Schiffer uses "mosaic" only for stones set without wire frames. Sikorski, as Bedinger quotes her, would call framed Zuni inlay mosaic too, since the stones are fitted before the housing is made. Our sources draw the line in different places, so I'm showing both.
Our page cites Bedinger that channel work began at Zuni just before World War II. Frank dates a channel-set ring to about 1915 and calls the technique early. Frank's date is his own estimate for one ring, and I show both.
I notice two dates for the start of chip inlay. Turnbaugh (2007) places it in the early 1960s, while Tommy Singer, in the account Lois Essary Jacka recorded in 1995, describes opening his shop in 1968 and turning to chip inlay after overlay. I show both as printed.
I noticed that two of our books frame chip inlay differently. Turnbaugh credits its first use to Navajo smiths in the early 1960s and describes fragments set in epoxy, while Schiffer (1996, p. 107) listed it in his section on Zuni jewelers as small irregular stones set side by side with no silver between them. I am noting both accounts rather than choosing one.
From the Library
What 14 reference books say about inlay, grouped by topic. Every passage names its book and page; full references are under Sources.
These are outside observers' records of the craft; the Zuni, Navajo (Diné), Hopi and other nations are the authority on their own work.
What inlay is: inlay, mosaic, channel and pavé, as the books define them7 passages · 5 books
How the books define inlay, mosaic, channel and pavé, and where they disagree.
According to Schiffer (2008, p. 18), inlay takes its name from the way expertly cut turquoise is laid into a predesigned silver wire frame. [11]
Schiffer (2008) drew the line between inlay and mosaic:
“Small cut stones mounted together without the wire frames are referred to as "mosaics."”
Schiffer (2008), p. 18 AS OF 2008 [11]
Bedinger (1973, p. 147) passed on Sikorski's point that "inlay" is technically a misnomer: because the pieces are cut, fitted and polished before the silver housing is made, the proper term would be mosaic. [12]
Bedinger (1973) gave the simplest way to tell the two apart:
“Channel differs from mosaic in that silver shows between the stones.”
Bedinger (1973), p. 196 AS OF 1973 [12]
Lois Essary Jacka, writing in 1995, on the difference:
“Mosaic inlay differs from channel in that in mosaic there are no silver outlines or "walls" separating the pieces of stone.”
Jacka (1995), p. 60 AS OF 1995 [17]
According to Baxter (2000, p. 83), most Native lapidarists worked with three main types of inlay: flat inlay, fitted into a groove and ground flush with its top; raised inlay, set the same way but left rounded and sometimes carved; and etched inlay, whose set stone carried an etched design that may relate to designs in the metalwork. [21]
Explaining the diamond settings on a gold inlay set, Bassman (1997) defined the pavé technique as:
“A setting in which jewels are placed close together so as to show no metal.”
Bassman (1997), p. 47 AS OF 1997 [15]
Before channel work: ancient mosaic and the first Zuni inlay6 passages · 3 books
Pre-contact mosaic, and the first historic Zuni inlay.
Baxter (2000) traced the technique back before European contact:
“Early Southwestern peoples, such as the Hohokam and Salado in south-central Arizona, excelled at this personal adornment technique, but the inlay process was used in other regions as well, including the California Coast and early Southeastern cultural areas.”
Baxter (2000), p. 83 AS OF 2000 [21]
According to Lowry (2010, p. 154), early mosaic used thin, unmatched bits of surface turquoise, each rubbed to shape on a sanding stone, fitted like a puzzle and fixed to bone, shell, wood or basketry with pitch or tree sap. [10]
According to Bedinger (1973, p. 148), earlier pendants of bone or soft stone such as alabaster had been cut away and set flush with bits of turquoise and jet. She reported that when Adair made his survey in 1940 he found 35 percent of Zuni jewelers doing mosaic work. [12]
According to Bedinger (1973, p. 147), Mrs. Kirk wrote in 1945 that the stones for the first piece of historic inlay were cut by Teddy Meahke of Zuni about 1935, on a special order for Dr. F. W. Hodge, in a design copied from an ancient piece. Bedinger added that an inlay technique was already in use at least as early as 1927. [12]
According to Bedinger (1973, p. 148), the Knife-Wing design was one of the earliest used decoratively in silver. It began as flat silver castings; turquoise was then cut to fit parts of the figure with silver showing around each setting, and as lapidaries grew more skilled individual bezels were dropped and modern mosaic work resulted. Rainbow and Sun figures followed. [12]
Baxter (2000) traced Zuni inlay to small-stone skill:
“Facility with small stones also led to innovative developments in channel and mosaic inlay, which replaced early Zuni large-stone compositions like those made by their Navajo counterparts”
Baxter (2000), p. 192 AS OF 2000 [21]
Zuni, the inlay center6 passages · 6 books
Zuni inlay from Adair's 1940 survey to the late 1980s.
According to Lowry (2010, p. 160), Santo Domingo and San Felipe pueblo artists became known for mosaic work, and Zuni Pueblo artists for petit point, inlay and needlepoint. [10]
Captioning a Zuni channel-work squash blossom necklace in 1975, Branson wrote:
“The Zuni are masters at creating the most fascinating and beautiful jewelry from bits and pieces of turquoise”
Branson (1975), p. 13 AS OF 1975 [9]
According to Adair (1944, p. 207), thirty-five percent of the Zuni smiths he questioned did inlay work in white and pink shell, jet and turquoise, and were paid $3.50 to $4.00 for a piece such as a Knife-Wing bird two inches high, a full day's work, with larger pieces paid proportionately more. [19]
According to Bedinger (1973, p. 195), postwar Zuni mosaic added cannel coal, red abalone, white spiny oyster, mother-of-pearl and coral to the older turquoise, white shell and jet, and a Gallup trader had recently introduced tortoise shell as a background or within the figure. [12]
Preston Monongye, in his own words in the 1975 Turquoise Blue Book, on Zuni inlay:
“The new trend of Zuni inlaying goes into the more delicate and matched stones, such as those done by Lee and Mary Webothee. They do very fine cluster work and have refined their techniques into Cabochon cuts which when used with the old cluster method, achieve a very unique look.”
Stacey (1975), p. 76 AS OF 1975 [16]
According to Turnbaugh (2007, p. 72), by the late 1980s design inspiration was drawn from 20th-century life as well as traditional lifeways: Zuni inlay might depict Mickey Mouse or Olympic emblems as readily as life forms native to the Southwest. [14]
Channel inlay: when it began6 passages · 5 books
Three starting points for channel work, from about 1915 to just before World War II.
According to Frank (1990, p. 201, Fig. 253), a ring that looked like early Zuni work, circa 1915, used the early channel-setting technique for stones that were almost all green. [13]
According to Bedinger (1973, p. 149), dealers told Sikorski that channel work went back at least to 1940, but it did not become common until after World War II. [12]
Writing in 1973, Bedinger dated channel work:
“The technique called channel originated at Zuni just before World War II and since 1940 has grown in popularity.”
Bedinger (1973), p. 196 AS OF 1973 [12]
Lund (1976, p. 58) dated the technique to shortly before World War II, adding that it did not gain popularity until after the war. [20]
Baxter (2000) dated channel inlay:
“This technique originated in the late 1920s and became more widespread by the 1960s.”
Baxter (2000), p. 30 AS OF 2000 [21]
Schiffer (2008, p. 20) illustrated a Zuni channel inlay group of turquoise set in silver (a link bracelet, oval buckle, earrings and pins) dated circa 1950s. [11] Schiffer (1996, p. 107) also wrote that “Zuni jewelers are well known for their spectacular work setting cut stones in mosaic designs, both stone-to-stone inlay and channel inlay, where a thin ‘channel’ of silver separates the individual stones.” [18]
How channel work is built4 passages · 2 books
Cells, cement, polish, and cast compartments.
According to Bedinger (1973, p. 196), channel work was built by soldering silver strips upright on a silver base to make small cells, cementing accurately cut stones into them flush with the tops of the dividers, then grinding and polishing the whole to one smooth surface, usually flat but sometimes domed. [12]
According to Bedinger (1973, p. 197), channel stones were flat-topped and shared their walls with neighbors, and the dividers were wider than bezels with plain rather than toothed edges, forming part of the design. [12]
According to Baxter (2000, p. 30), the cement used in channel work before the 1940s was resin or pine pitch, and epoxy came into use later. [21]
Baxter (2000) added a disclosure point for buyers:
“Since the 1970s, the silver compartments can be made by centrifugal casting; buyers should be informed if this is the case.”
Baxter (2000), p. 30 AS OF 2000 [21]
Navajo frames, Zuni stones: shared work4 passages · 4 books
Navajo silverwork, Zuni stonework.
According to Bedinger (1973, p. 197), Neumann, a writer she cites, argued that most channel work was Navajo in design, because a Navajo smith usually built the frame by soldering the dividers onto the backing and then sold the frame to a dealer, from whom it passed to a Zuni, or occasionally a white lapidary, to cut and fit the stones; he described a considerable group of Navajo frame-makers living near Manuelito, New Mexico. [12]
Jacka (1995) on channel inlay in the early days:
“In the early days, channel inlay jewelry was often a cooperative effort between a Navajo who did the silverwork and a Zuni who set the stones.”
Jacka (1995), p. 60 AS OF 1995 [17]
Lund (1976) on who made channel work:
“Often Channel work is a cooperative effort, since the silverwork is frequently done by a Navajo smith and then turned over to a Zuni jeweler for the stonework.”
Lund (1976), p. 58 AS OF 1976 [20]
Baxter, writing in 2000, on who made the older pieces:
“In older channel-work pieces, Zuni lapidarists initially cut stones to be set in silver pieces created by Navajo smiths.”
Baxter (2000), p. 30 AS OF 2000 [21]
Chip inlay7 passages · 4 books
Epoxy, chips and overlay, from the early 1960s.
Turnbaugh (2007, p. 45, caption) described chip inlay as a modern adaptation of two older techniques, mosaic inlay and overlay: the background areas that overlay would leave blackened are instead filled with epoxy and fragments of turquoise, coral, black jet or other material. [14]
Turnbaugh (2007) dated the first chip inlay:
“Chip inlay work was first made in the early 1960's by Navajo smiths including Dean Kirk, Tom Singer, and other Singer family members.”
Turnbaugh (2007), p. 45 AS OF 2007 [14]
Tommy Singer told Jacka (1995, p. 37) that he opened a shop in Shiprock in 1968 and worked first in overlay, then in chip inlay, which he made by gluing leftover chips of good turquoise together with epoxy, grinding off the tops and polishing them. [17]
In his 1996 section on Zuni jewelers, Schiffer defined chip inlay:
“Another technique known as “chip inlay” is small irregular stones inlaid right next to one another with no silver between the stones.”
Schiffer (1996), p. 107 AS OF 1996 [18]
Schiffer (2008, p. 21) also illustrated a sterling group worked in chip turquoise inlay, dated circa 1980s. [11]
Turnbaugh (2007, p. 80, caption) dates a Navajo chip inlay piece:
“This Navajo necklace, ca. 1970, combines silver overlay with chip inlay of turquoise and coral.”
Turnbaugh (2007), p. 80 AS OF 2007 [14]
On the same necklace, Turnbaugh (2007, p. 80, caption) pointed to the evidence of handwork: differing bird-beak widths, slight variations in body contours and differences in inlay and tooling show that the water bird (anhinga) pendants were entirely hand-made. [14]
Contemporary inlay: Loloma, gold and named makers5 passages · 2 books
Loloma, gold, and pieces credited to two makers.
Turnbaugh (2007, p. 73, caption) credits the Hopi artist Charles Loloma with first pioneering the "ear of corn" inlay technique in the 1960s, a contemporary form of traditional mosaic inlay that many craftsmen were making versions of by the late 1980s. [14]
Writing in 1997, Bassman described where some Navajo jewelers were taking the craft:
“However, some artists are changing styles, forging new ideas and techniques, using inlay of precious and semiprecious stones, channel work, mosaic inlay, and overlay. In addition, the sophisticated use of gold and diamonds has transformed jewelry making from craft to art.”
Bassman (1997), p. 7 AS OF 1997 [15]
Bassman (1997, p. 42) shows gold channel and mosaic inlay on a page headed “All 14-Karat Gold Bracelets and Rings”: link bracelets and rings, all made by Julian Arviso. [15]
Bassman (1997, p. 69) credited a matched set of hinged bracelet, necklace and earrings to two makers: the silver work by Norton Becenti and the channel work and mosaic inlay stones set by Rick Tolino. [15]
Bassman (1997, p. 70) divided the credit on an inlaid necklace and earrings the same way: silver work by Calvin Begay, stones set by Wilbert Muskett, Jr. [15]
Frequently asked questions
What is the difference between inlay, mosaic and channel work?
Schiffer (2008) names inlay for cut turquoise laid into a predesigned silver wire frame and calls small cut stones mounted together without the frames mosaics. Bedinger: “Channel differs from mosaic in that silver shows between the stones.” Jacka puts it from the other side: in mosaic, no silver walls divide the pieces.
When did channel inlay begin?
The books disagree. Bedinger (1973) writes that it originated at Zuni just before World War II, and Lund (1976) dates it shortly before the war. Baxter (2000) puts its origin in the late 1920s. Frank (1990) dates one channel-set ring to about 1915.
Who made channel inlay, Navajo or Zuni?
Often both. Jacka and Lund describe early channel work as a cooperative effort, with a Navajo smith doing the silverwork and a Zuni jeweler setting the stones. Neumann, as Bedinger cites him, called most channel work Navajo in design.
What is chip inlay?
The Turnbaughs call it a modern adaptation of mosaic inlay and overlay: where overlay leaves its background black, chip inlay fills it with epoxy and fragments of turquoise, coral, jet or other material. They trace it to Navajo smiths of the early 1960s. Schiffer (1996) defines it as small, irregular stones set tight against each other, with no silver between.
Is cast channel work handmade?
Not always. Baxter (2000) notes that from the 1970s on, the silver cells of channel work can be cast in a centrifuge, and that a buyer should be told when they are.
A note on accuracy. We strive for accuracy, and this page is continuously updated with new information from the artists, their families, and the community. Corrections welcome.
Sources
- Arizona Highways (1954), p. 32; Encyclopedia of Native American Jewelry, p. 4; Lund, Indian Jewelry: Fact and Fantasy, pp. 54, 71
- Encyclopedia, p. 4; Tanner & Koonce, Ray Manley's Portraits and Turquoise, p. 60
- Hougart, Native American and Southwestern Silver Hallmarks (5th ed.), p. 362
- Schaaf, American Indian Jewelry I (2003), p. 340
- Schaaf (2003), p. 322
- Hougart 5e, p. 373
- Hougart 5e, pp. 47, 100
- Hougart 5e, pp. 49, 102
- Branson, Oscar T. Turquoise: The Gem of the Centuries. Santa Fe: Treasure Chest Publications, 1975. Cited by printed page. Statements describe conditions as of 1975.
- Lowry, Joe Dan, and Joe P. Lowry. Turquoise: The World Story of a Fascinating Gemstone. Layton, UT: Gibbs Smith, 2010. Cited by printed page. Statements describe conditions as of 2010.
- Schiffer, Nancy N. Turquoise Jewelry. Revised 4th ed. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, 2008. Cited by printed page. Statements describe conditions as of 2008.
- Bedinger, Margery. Indian Silver: Navajo and Pueblo Jewelers. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1973. Cited by printed page. Statements describe conditions as of 1973.
- Frank, Larry, with the assistance of Millard J. Holbrook II. Indian Silver Jewelry of the Southwest, 1868-1930. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, 1990. First published 1978 by New York Graphic Society. Cited by printed page. Statements describe conditions as of 1990.
- Turnbaugh, William A., and Sarah Peabody Turnbaugh. Indian Jewelry of the American Southwest. Foreword by Barry M. Goldwater. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, 2007 (copyright 1996 and 2007; first published 1988). ISBN 0-7643-2577-9. Cited by printed page. Statements describe conditions as of 2007.
- Bassman, Theda. The Beauty of Navajo Jewelry. Photography by Gene Balzer. Walnut, California: Kiva Publishing, 1997. Cited by printed page. Statements describe conditions as of 1997.
- Stacey, Joseph, ed. Turquoise Blue Book and Indian Jewelry Digest. Arizona Highways Collectors Series. Phoenix: Arizona Highways (Arizona Department of Transportation), 1975. Cited by printed page. Statements describe conditions as of 1975.
- Jacka, Lois Essary. Navajo Jewelry: A Legacy of Silver and Stone. Photographs by Jerry Jacka. Flagstaff: Northland Publishing, 1995. Cited by printed page. Statements describe conditions as of 1995.
- Schiffer, Peter N. Indian Jewelry on the Market. Text and photography by Peter N. Schiffer. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 1996. Cited by printed page. Statements describe conditions as of 1996.
- Adair, John. The Navajo and Pueblo Silversmiths. The Civilization of the American Indian Series. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1944. Cited by printed page. Statements describe conditions as of 1944.
- Lund, Marsha Mayer. Indian Jewelry: Fact and Fantasy. Boulder, CO: Paladin Press, 1976. Cited by printed page. Statements describe conditions as of 1976.
- Baxter, Paula A., with Allison Bird-Romero. Encyclopedia of Native American Jewelry: A Guide to History, People, and Terms. Phoenix: Oryx Press, 2000. Cited by printed page. Statements describe conditions as of 2000.
- Schaaf, Gregory, with Angie Yan Schaaf. American Indian Jewelry I: 1,200 Artist Biographies, ca. 1800-present. American Indian Art Series, Vol. 5. Santa Fe: CIAC Press, 2003. Cited by printed page. Statements describe conditions as of 2003.
