History · Turquoise · Jul 23, 2015

Ancient Egyptian Turquoise: The Riches of Hathor’s Mines

Thousands of years ago, ancient native Egyptians called the Monitu in the Sinai Peninsula plunged deep into echoing chasms searching for a flash of blue lightly speckled with matrix. The prized turquoise veins of the Serabit el-Khadim and Wadi Maghareh mines have yielded breathtaking stone specimens since 3000 BC. The Wadi Maghareh is believed to have been only 2.5 miles from an ancient temple dedicated to the Egyptian goddess Hathor. She is heralded as the goddess of the turquoise sky, beauty, joy, motherhood, fertility and lastly: mining. It is appropriate then that the temple for Hathor would be so close to the mines that produced such lovely, slightly dark turquoise. It is also no wonder then that the region is still referred to in Arabic by two names: Arḍ ul-Fairūz or “the land of turquoise” and Mafkat, the “land of the green minerals.”

The Monitu people gathered, cut, shaped, and polished Sinai turquoise pieces by hand and showcased them in exquisite necklaces, patterning for tombs and sarcophagi, and other ornamental uses. Turquoise was also carved into tiny scarab “beads” that could be strung together or treasured as individual pieces. Scarabs were of particular significance to ancient Egyptians as they symbolized life and rebirth.

The color of natural Sinai turquoise is very distinct; it is more translucent than other more common varieties and it has a noticeably darker hue that can be likened more to an azure color than green or robin’s egg blue. It also has less matrix veining, which is quite similar to Persian turquoise that is prized for its uniform color.

Miners would routinely carve messages onto the side of the caves praising pharaohs and the gods for their findings. Some of the carvings were simple messages regarding the weather, mining conditions, or locations of particularly abundant turquoise deposits within the caves. If the caves had “run dry” miners would also carve warnings for others to move on to new mines. These messages were often elaborate narratives that give a compelling glimpse into the daily life of the Monitu people at this time.

Ancient Egyptian turquoise sourced from the Sinai Peninsula was deeply admired by Egyptian royalty and the common citizenry alike. Turquoise is often referred to as the “people’s gemstone” in Egyptian culture. Archaeologists have uncovered numerous turquoise pieces from necklaces, headpieces, rings, and more. Turquoise amulets were often buried with mummies.

Some of the most striking examples of jewelry using turquoise in ancient Egypt can be seen in the wide, elaborate collars pharaohs would wear for ceremonies and other special occasions. Often as much as eight inches wide from the base of the neck to the chest, these sweeping, ornamental masterpieces were often divided into adjoined “planks” that were woven meticulously with turquoise, tiger’s eye, carnelian, and lapis lazuli beads. The intricate beadwork on these collars rivals that of Native American Zuni squash blossom necklaces.

Cleopatra was said to have worn elaborate headdresses embedded with turquoise, carnelian, and topped with a mesmerizing snake diadem. If this was not enough, turquoise was also crushed into a fine powder and used as eye shadow as a way of matching and complimenting elaborate turquoise jewelry pieces.

As one of the oldest gemstones that has been mined and crafted into jewelry, turquoise comes with a rich history.

References

Dunn, Jimmy. “Egypt: The Temple and Mines at Serabit El-Khadim In the Sinai.” Egypt: The Temple and Mines at Serabit El-Khadim In the Sinai. Tour Egypt, 21 June 2011. Web. 19 July 2015.

Gems, Emily. “Ancient Egypt, Precious Metals and Gemstones.” Emily Gems, Joyful Crystals and Gemstones. N.p., 2011. Web. 20 July 2015.

Keshk, Fatma. “Forgotten Archaeological Gems: The Ancient Turquoise Mines of South Sinai.” Egypt Independent. N.p., 9 Oct. 2011. Web. 19 July 2015.

From the Library: Pogue, The Turquois (1915)

1915 primary source. Anything described as current here describes 1915, not today.

Writing in 1915, Pogue summarized the Egyptian evidence then known:

“The turquois was known and used as an ornament in remote antiquity. Recent excavations in Egypt show that this precious stone found employment in that country prior to the first dynasty—a time to which history scarcely penetrates.”
— Pogue (1915), p. 9

On the Egyptian word for the stone, Pogue (1915) wrote:

“The earliest direct reference to turquois occurs in ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics, in which the word mafkat finds repeated mention. This term was translated at first as malachite, an ore of copper, but is now believed by competent authorities to refer to turquois.”
— Pogue (1915), p. 9

Writing in 1915, Pogue reported that Egyptian use of turquoise went back before the pharaohs:

“It is certain, however, that this mineral was used by them as an ornament long before the dynastic period was entered upon, as amply demonstrated by the presence of turquois beads in prehistoric graves.”
— Pogue (1915), p. 69

Pogue (1915) described Petrie's 1900 find in the royal tombs at Abydos, which as of 1915 he counted the oldest jewelry then known:

“This relic proved to be the desiccated arm of Queen Zer, and when freed from its bandages revealed four encircling bracelets of gold and precious stones (see Pl. 5, Fig. 3), representing the oldest group of jewelry known in the world.”
— Pogue (1915), p. 69

On how the finest of those bracelets was made, Pogue (1915) wrote:

“The turquois had been cut with a saw and worked over with a drill and a graving point.”
— Pogue (1915), p. 70

Pogue's 1915 summary of turquoise along the Nile:

“it is safe to assert that the turquois was a prized possession among the ancient dwellers along the Nile, forming with gold, amethyst, and the other quartz gems, objects highly prized for purposes of decoration and personal adornment.”
— Pogue (1915), p. 71

Pogue (1915) retold Baufra's Tale, an ancient Egyptian story from a papyrus translated by Petrie, set in the reign of King Sneferu. A palace rower

“dropped a jewel of new turquois from her hair and refused to be comforted for its loss. Then Zazamankh, seeing the King chagrined by this untoward event, spoke a magic speech, whereby the waters were divided and the jewel recovered.”
— Pogue (1915), p. 111

On the translation, Pogue (1915) added in a footnote:

“In this edition, the jewel is called malachite, but Petrie (in written communication to writer)now considers it to be turquois, the preferable translation of mafkat.”
— Pogue (1915), p. 111

Pogue (1915) on the ancient names:

“The country as a whole was called Mafkat, or Country of Turquois; and the Egyptian goddess Hathor, the patroness of the turquois seekers, was termed the Lady of Mafkat, or Mistress of Turquois.”
— Pogue (1915), p. 30

Pogue (1915) described the Monitu as the first miners there, before the Egyptians came:

“The Monitu, who frequented the Sinai Peninsula from the dawn of history until comparatively recent time, when the Arabs became its inhabitants, at a very early period discovered deposits from which they extracted copper and turquois that later found their way to the Delta of the Nile.”
— Pogue (1915), p. 30

At Serabit el Khadem, Pogue wrote in 1915:

“The most striking indication of Egyptian activity is an extensive temple, now in ruins, constructed of the local sandstone quarried nearby. This reached the total length of 230 feet and by its size indicates the importance in which the district was held.”
— Pogue (1915), p. 29

Pogue (1915) on the scale of an expedition:

“Following the Nile inundation in November and December, the expedition, consisting usually of 400 to 500 men, would set forth for the peninsula, and there remain for several months actively prosecuting the mining.”
— Pogue (1915), p. 32

Pogue (1915) was careful to warn readers about the ancient dates he borrowed from Petrie:

“it should be distinctly borne in mind that more conservative estimates place the events about 1,000 years nearer the present era and some authorities believe that in many instances it is quite impossible to allot any precise dates whatsoever.”
— Pogue (1915), p. 30

From the Library: Khazeni, Sky Blue Stone (2014)

2014 primary source. Anything described as current here describes 2014, not today.

Khazeni (2014) on Hathor and the mines:

“The workers dedicated the mines to Hathor, the goddess of the turquoise land, the goddess of turquoise, and built temples in her honor.”
— Khazeni (2014), p. 20 ^[2]

According to Khazeni (2014, p. 19), Egyptian turquoise expeditions entered a harsh environment where they had to pay tribute to the local Bedouin and guard their workings against raids by the Monitu, called “Lords of the Sands” in the inscriptions. ^[2]

On dating, Khazeni (2014) wrote that the Sinai mines

“were known to the Egyptians before 5500 B.C.E.”
— Khazeni (2014), p. 19 ^[2]

Beliefs and dedications below are recorded in ancient inscriptions and reported by Khazeni (2014); they are history.

According to Khazeni (2014, p. 95), once the Wadi Maghara veins were worked out, untouched deposits were found about ten miles away at Sarabit al-Khadim, where the workers dedicated the mines to Hathor, goddess of the turquoise land, and built a temple in her honour. ^[2]

According to Khazeni (2014, p. 95), the last pharaoh to leave an inscription at Sarabit al-Khadim was Ramses VI (r. c. 1145-1137 B.C.E.); when the turquoise ran out the temple was abandoned until nineteenth-century explorers found it again. ^[2]

Khazeni (2014) describes what the rediscoverers found at the Temple of the Turquoise Goddess:

“They included beads and now-broken pottery dedicated to the Turquoise Goddess by those who had sought her favor in the prospect of mining.”
— Khazeni (2014), p. 95 ^[2]

Khazeni (2014) quotes a Twelfth Dynasty stela at Sarabit al-Khadim in which a superintendent of the mines recalled his work:

“I toiled cheerfully; I brought abundance, yea, abundance of turquoise, and obtained yet more by my search. I did not miss a single vein.”
— Khazeni (2014), p. 96 ^[2]

According to Khazeni (2014, p. 96), a stone tablet at Wadi Maghara shows a group of miners watched by a guard armed with a bow and arrow, evidence that gangs of captives worked the mines. ^[2]

Khazeni (2014) quotes the Egyptologist Gaston Maspero on the seasonal mining camps:

““Royal inspectors arrived from time to time,” Maspero wrote, “to examine into their condition, to rekindle their zeal, and to collect the product of their toil.””
— Khazeni (2014), p. 98 ^[2]

Field Notes by Mateo James

Our page dates the Sinai mines to about 3000 BC. Pogue, writing in 1915 and following Petrie's chronology, put the First Dynasty mining colony at about 5500 B.C. The Lowrys' Turquoise: The World Story dates the Wadi Maghara workings to 3100–1069 BC, close to our figure. I note the gap so readers can see where the older, earlier date comes from.

I notice this article dates the Sinai mines to 3000 BC, while Khazeni (2014) writes that they were known to the Egyptians before 5500 B.C.E., the same figure Pogue (1915) took from Petrie. Pogue himself warned that more conservative estimates put such dates about 1,000 years later, so both dates stay on the page.

I notice our article puts Wadi Maghareh only 2.5 miles from Hathor's temple. Khazeni (2014) places the Sarabit al-Khadim deposits, where the workers built that temple, about ten miles from Wadi Maghara, and Pogue (1915) also gives 10 miles between the two sites.

Sources

Pogue, Joseph E. The Turquois: A Study of Its History, Mineralogy, Geology, Ethnology, Archaeology, Mythology, Folklore, and Technology. Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol. XII, Part II, Third Memoir. Washington, 1915. Public domain. Cited by printed page. Statements describe conditions as of 1915.
Khazeni, Arash. Sky Blue Stone: The Turquoise Trade in World History. The California World History Library 20. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014. Cited by printed page. Statements describe conditions as of 2014.